Briefly outline and discuss some users and uses of Archival Materials.

An archive may refer to i)those records that are deemed to be of continuing
and/or permanent value; ii) an organization (or part of an organization)
responsible for administering records; and iii) a physical location/place where
such records are deposited and taken care of. Archival material in this context
refers to archives. Peter Van Garderen however describes archival materials as
“information objects that serve as evidence of past events/activities, acting as
memory aids that allow users to recall, relive or re-communicate information
about those events in the future”. Archives are created by many different
groups such as schools, businesses and industry, government departments,
churches etc. just as there many different groups that create records that end
up as archives, there are many different groups that use such archival
materials. Users of archival materials include scholars, historians, authors and
filmmakers, environmentalists, researchers, genealogists, archaeologists,
veterans, educators and students, architects, and staff of organizations. The
uses of archives are even more profound because of the various reasons for
which they are used. These are discussed while discussing the users of archival
materials.

 

Genealogy describes the study or investigation of ancestry and family history.
One place to find a wealth of information on genealogy is in archival materials.
By going through census records, genealogists are able to learn people’s
names, their addresses, ages and so on. For people living especially in the US,
archived travel logs is a good way for them to trace their ancestry by
determining when their ancestors first landed on her shores as well as from
whence they came. In some religious observances such as baptism for the dead
as practiced by Mormons, family records are requested and archives become
the go-to place to find such information. Note however that, genealogy through
records only works where there are in fact, preserved records, whether
through written or audio-visual means. Most Africans may be restricted in this
regard since writing was not commonplace for a very long time.
Notwithstanding, archives are an important source of information for
genealogy related work.

 
Staff of organizations access organizational archives that have been preserved
in order to understand the organization’s history, to say, better understand
current and past policies, as well as help make future decisions. The archives
document infrastructure, legal issues, fiscal reports, development, general
administration and institutional memory. additionally, archived records of
potential and/or existing employees can be accessed in order to make
decisions in their regard. Here, academic, bank, citizenship, travel, criminal etc.
records can be used. Archives thus help solve problems and prevent problems
from becoming reoccurring events.

 
Historians are heavily reliant on archives in their attempt to understand and
reconstruct the events of the past. Since they cannot always question the
witness accounts at the time, archives provide the only source of evidence that
can be used. This is very important to historians because, the best source of
information for learning about the past is found in primary sources and archival
materials boast of this type of information. The diary of Anne Frank for example,
gives a detailed account of a Jewish girl’s life during the Nazi regime and has
enabled the world understand the effects of the Nazi crimes at an interpersonal
level.

 

The nature of scholarly work is such that, new knowledge is simply a better
understanding or revision of existing knowledge. In order to do this, scholars
need to survey a large body of work to gain insight into prevailing or archaic
ideas, as well as to get inspiration for new ones. Scholars visit archives to read
academic papers, research findings, dissertations and so on. Scholars also
often enter an archive seeking an individual item or collection that might be
cited in another scholarly work, to facilitate some scholarly enterprise that he
or she might be pursuing. Not all academic research is conducted by
experienced scholars. Students are also in the business of gathering
information from archival materials. Students working on a graduate
dissertation or an undergraduate long essay may approach the archives for
information they otherwise will not find in the library, or much like with scholars,
to find an item cited in some scholarly work.

 
Authors and filmmakers resort to archival materials in order to better
understand and familiarize with the people and settings about which they are
writing/filming. The popular Tom Hanks movie, Forrest Gump for example, used
stock/archival footage modified with CGI (Computer Generated Imagery) to
portray him meeting historic figures such as John F. Kennedy and John Lenon.
The Ghanaian filmmaker, John Akomfrah almost completely relies on archival
footage for all his films and documentaries (Ideas Tap). Archives are also an
invaluable resource for gathering information for biographies. Japanese
storytelling for example is replete with historical references and legends that
have all been archived. Take the manga genre of literature in Japan for example,
that extensively features references to Japan’s history as well as myths and
legends. Archives would have been consulted to better understand such
information and thus, better write stories and make films.

 
Architects and archaeologists consult archives to help in decision making.
Architects consult archives especially in restoration works on old buildings, as
well as inspiring new designs that borrow elements from the past.
Archaeologists in doing their work also rely on maps and related information to
help locate the remains of buildings and lost landmarks to help plan
excavations.

 
In settling disputes in court, the judge and jury rely on substantial evidence to
adjudicate cases such as land disputes, inheritance disputes and so on. The
best way to gather such evidence is from archival materials. Archival materials
also play an indispensable role when holding governments and its departments
and agencies accountable for their actions.
In short, archival materials can be used by everyone for numerous reasons.
Some of the users of archival materials have been discussed above. A summary
of the uses of such materials (PRONI) to them and anyone are:

i. to learn about the past (historians, genealogy)
ii. to help us understand who we are and our evolution (society, literature)
iii. for purposes of evidence (dispute resolution)
iv. education and learning (scholarly and research work)
v. personal reasons (genealogy)
vi. accountable governance (to promote stability)

 

REFERENCES.
Archives New Zealand
Glossary Definitions Full List [Online].
Available: archives.govt.nz/advice/continuum-resource-kit/glossary/definitions-full-list
[Accessed April 19 2014]
Higher Archivist
Uses of University Archives [Online].
Available: https://sites/google.com/site/higherarchivists/Home/what-are-archives
[Accessed April 19 2014]
Limara Salt, Ideas Tap. 27 September, 2013
Filmmaker John Akomfrah on working with archives. [Online]
Available:
http://www.ideastap.com/ideasmag/the-knowledge/filmmaker-john-akomfrah-archive-interview
[Accessed April 19 2014]
Ontario Ministry of Government
A Guide to Understanding Archives: Who uses archives and why?[ Online].
Available: http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/en/about/archives_unboxed/who_uses.aspx
[Accessed April 19 2014]
Peter Van Garderen, Archivematica
Archival Materials: A Practical Defintion [Online].
Available: archivemati.ca/2007/01/22/archival-materials-a-practical-definition/
[Accessed April 19 2014]
Public Record Office of Northern Ireland
What are archives and records? [Online].
Available: http://www.proni.gov.uk/index/new_to_archives/what_are_archives_and_records.htm
[Accessed April 19 2014]
The National Archives
Why Visit the National Archives? [Online].
Available: http://www.archives.gov/locations/why-visit.html
[Accessed April 19 2014]
Wikipedia
Stock Footage [Online].
Available: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/stock_footage
[Accessed April 19 2014]

Discuss the social contract of Hobbes and J.J. Rousseau, highlighting their differences and similarities.

The idea of social contract can be summed up as the notion that people or citizens are the
source of power to the state and that the state exists to serve the people. In other words,
it is the view that moral and political obligations are dependent upon an agreement
between the state and its people (Friend,2004).It can be said that, the idea of elections
stems from this, where the people can choose to give or withhold power. The theory has
been espoused by many writers from ancient times such as Plato and in modern times, by
thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Of particular
interest are the works of Hobbes, The Leviathan and J.J. Rousseau, The Social Contract. In
discussing the differences and similarities between both author’s thoughts on social
contract, an examination of their influences will occasionally come to the fore.

 
Both authors come to their conclusion of the social contract by recognizing the nature of
man in his most basic state. Both agree that, all men are created equal, but differ
considerably on the reasons men come into contract with each other. Hobbes in his
Leviathan paints a pessimistic picture of the origins of social contract, where according to
him, man is in a state of perpetual war with each other, “war of all against all” (Hobbes
185). The backdrop to such pessimism lies in his conception that, man is a selfish being,
seeking his own interests at the expense of others. This selfishness results in a state of
lawlessness where following Lex Naturalis and Jus Naturalis, man will not destroy himself
but is empowered to use every means possible to preserve his life and happiness at
everyone else expense. This state of lawlessness then births a situation where every man
is an enemy to everyone. This inevitably leads to a situation where there is no right nor
wrong and men live in perpetual fear of one another. A social contract naturally followed
where men being rational beings, surrendered their powers to an absolute third party who
was not subject to the contract, but used all powers accorded within. Rousseau however
disagrees with Hobbes, indicating that, man’s life is not naturally in Hobbes words,
“solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”, rather, it is man’s circumstances that lead him to
such a state. According to Rousseau, all men are born free and are simply interested in self
preservation. In his state of nature, man’s actions are primarily directed by his immediate
food needs, sexual satisfaction and sleep. His only fear is hunger and pain. Rousseau
differs from Hobbes where he describes humans as naturally being empathetic to the
plight of fellow humans. Such empathy and compassion thus prevents man from harming
another man. To Rousseau, it is the development of society and its progress that have led
man to the position shared by by Hobbes on the nature of man.

 
Morality is touched on by both authors as they explore their notions of the social contract.
To Hobbes as previously insinuated, man is naturally evil and selfish, seeking only his own
preservation. This leads to a situation where there is morally no wrong nor right, just
selfishness and fear. This comes about as a result of the Law of Nature (Lex Naturalis ) and
the Right of Nature (Jus Naturalis). The law of nature is a natural rule that man is forbidden
from actions that will bring destruction to or take away the means of preserving his life
and happiness and the the right of nature is the right of every person to use every means
possible to secure his own life and happiness. Rousseau however differs, indicating that,
man is not naturally as Hobbes described, but evolves into that state as civilization
develops. To sum up Rousseau on morality, “the state of nature degenerates into a brutish
condition if there is no law or morality. The human race must at that point adopt
institutions of law or cease to exist”.

 
Both authors also recognize a central requirement and defining feature of a political unit
to be a sovereign power. For Hobbes, the existence and creation of an effective sovereign
is needed for workable social and political organization. Following from his conception of
the social contract, he believes that those partaking in the contract must hand over their
rights, liberties and powers to a sovereign or monarch, who rules in their interest. To him,
the absence of such a sovereign takes man back to his natural state which is one of
perpetual fear and exploitation. This sovereign should be a Leviathan, allowed free reign
to do whatever he/she deems necessary to ensure peace and order. All the people in
giving up their rights in order that they may no longer live under a state of perpetual fear,
could not reject this Leviathan as everything he did was in the best interest of the people.
Rousseau however insists that, it is the people that hold the power and therefore, it is the
general will of the people that will guide them. In so doing, people are not subject to the
wills, or the whims and caprices of one person, but to what is desirous of everyone. This
goes a long way to ensure that, society doesn’t degenerate into the kind described by
Hobbes. Put simply, Rousseau argued that sovereignty should be in the hands of the
people and governments should simply be the enforcers and implementers of that will.
Despite their glaring differences on issues, both thinkers shared some fundamental
likeness. Both acknowledge that man is created equally and no one is above the other.
Rousseau begins his Social Contract saying: “ man is born free; but everywhere he is in
chains”. Hobbes also shares man’s equality where he explains that, man is simply alive for
his own self preservation and lives in fear of the other. By expounding this idea, we
understand that, all men invariably seek their own selfish interests while at the same time,
remain weary of their brothers. Similarly, both men agree that, a contract should be
entered into to ensure man’s well being. They only differ significantly on the manner in
which this contract should be entered into, with Hobbes advocating absolutism and
Rousseau, participatory governance or general good will.

 
Again, both thinkers recognize that, man has the tendency to be at war with each other,
and to seem very evil. Hobbes however asserts that man is this way from his conception,
whereas Rousseau sees this as resulting from circumstances men find themselves in. both
men believe in man’s rationality as the only reason to enter the social contract. While
Hobbes explicitly advocates for absolute rule, Rousseau does so implicitly when he
cautions that, “despotism can lead to a joyless tranquility. By recognizing man’s rationality
and shrewdness, both thinkers were then able to formulate their theories on the contract,
however their divergent conclusions. Both men unquestionably, set out on their ideas of a
social contract in a quest to find a common ground and solution for which man could live
in harmony with each other.

 
It is important to note however that, both writers wrote at very different times and
contexts. For example, Hobbes wrote in a period where there were many wars and
anarchy seemed to be the order of the day, whereas Rousseau wrote in a relatively
peaceful period. Moreover, both men had very different upbringings and influences and
more importantly, both grew up in different eras. The point here is that, they perhaps
would have come to the same conclusion had they at least, lived in the same era and saw
the same things. Conclusively, both thinkers paved the way for modern conceptions of
democracy and authoritarianism, the former the guiding principle of many governments
around the world today.
REFERENCES
Celeste Friend, 2004, Social Contract Theory.[Online]
Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
Available: http://www.iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/
[Accessed April 26, 2014]
Jeff Weintraub, 2007, Rousseau vs. Hobbes on sovereignty, citizenship & the political. Online.
Jeff Weintraub.
Available: jeffweintraub.blogspot.nl/2007/12/rousseau-vs-obbes-on-sovereignty.html
[Accessed April 26, 2014]
Julie et. al, 2005. Views on the Social Contract. Online.
Mr. Beaver’s AP Euro Blog.
Available: rbrhistory.blogspot.nl/2005/11/views-on-social-contract.html
[Accessed April 26, 2014]
Kelly Martin, Social Contract. Online.
About.com
Available: americanhistory.about.com/od/usconstitution/g/social_contract.html
[Accessed April 26, 2014]
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